From 33cd4f5f685105746be30bf27d85455b4b9c8651 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Danila Fedorin <danila.fedorin@gmail.com>
Date: Sat, 28 Mar 2020 22:26:47 -0700
Subject: [PATCH] Start working on part 11 of compiler series

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+---
+title: Compiling a Functional Language Using C++, Part 11 - Polymorphic Data Types
+date: 2020-03-28T20:10:35-07:00
+draft: true
+tags: ["C and C++", "Functional Languages", "Compilers"]
+---
+[In part 10]({{< relref "10_compiler_polymorphism.md" >}}), we managed to get our
+compiler to accept functions that were polymorphically typed. However, a piece
+of the puzzle is still missing: while our _functions_ can handle values
+of different types, the same cannot be said for our _data types_. This means
+that we cannot construct data structures that can contain arbitrary types.
+While we can define and use a list of integers, if we want to also have a
+list of booleans, we must copy all of our constructors and define a new data type.
+Worse, not only do we have to duplicate the constructors, but also all the functions
+that operate on the list. As far as our compiler is concerned, a list of
+integers and a list of booleans are entirely different beasts, and cannot
+be operated on by the same code.
+
+To make polymorphic data types possible, we must extend our language (and type
+system) a little. We will now allow for something like this:
+
+```
+data List a = { Nil, Cons a List }
+```
+
+In the above snippet, we are no longer declaring a single type, but a collection
+of related types, __parameterized__ by a type `a`. Any type can take the place
+of `a` to get a list containing that type of element.
+Then, `List Int` is a type,
+as is `List Bool` and `List (List Int)`. The constructors in the snippet also
+get polymorphic types:
+
+{{< latex >}}
+\text{Nil} : \forall a \; . \; \text{List} \; a \\
+\text{Cons} : \forall a \; . \; a \rightarrow \text{List} \; a \rightarrow \text{List} \; a
+{{< /latex >}}
+
+When you call `Cons`, the type of the resulting list varies with the type of element
+you pass in. The empty list `Nil` is a valid list of any type, since, well, it's
+empty.
+
+Let's talk about `List` itself, now. I suggest that we ponder the following table:
+
+\\(\\text{List}\\)|\\(\\text{Cons}\\)
+----|----
+\\(\\text{List}\\) is not a type; it must be followed up with arguments, like \\(\\text{List} \\; \\text{Int}\\).|\\(\\text{Cons}\\) is not a list; it must be followed up with arguments, like \\(\\text{Cons} \\; 3 \\; \\text{Nil}\\).
+\\(\\text{List} \\; \\text{Int}\\) is in its simplest form.|\\(\\text{Cons} \\; 3 \\; \\text{Nil}\\) is in its simplest form.
+\\(\\text{List} \\; \\text{Int}\\) is a type.|\\(\\text{Cons} \\; 3 \\; \\text{Nil}\\) is a value of type \\(\\text{List} \\; \\text{Int}\\).
+
+I hope that the similarities are quite striking. I claim that
+`List` is quite similar to a constructor `Cons`, except that it occurs
+in a different context: whereas `Cons` is a way to create values,
+`List` is a way to create types. Indeed, while we call `Cons` a constructor,
+it's typicall to call `List` a __type constructor__.
+We know that `Cons` is a function which
+assigns to values (like `3` and `Nil`) other values (like `Cons 3 Nil`, or `[3]` for
+short). In a similar manner, `List` can be thought of as a function
+that assigns to types (like `Int`) other types (like `List Int`). We can
+even claim that it has a type:
+
+{{< latex >}}
+\text{List} : \text{Type} \rightarrow \text{Type}
+{{< /latex >}}