diff --git a/content/blog/01_spa_agda_lattices.md b/content/blog/01_spa_agda_lattices.md index f54f396..69ebbb7 100644 --- a/content/blog/01_spa_agda_lattices.md +++ b/content/blog/01_spa_agda_lattices.md @@ -203,6 +203,7 @@ element that's greater (less specific) than either `s1` or `s2`". Conventionally this function is written as \(a \sqcup b\) (or in our case, \(s_1 \sqcup s_2\)). The \((\sqcup)\) symbol is also called the _join_ of \(a\) and \(b\). We can define it for our signs so far using the following [Cayley table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayley_table). +{#least-upper-bound} {{< latex >}} \begin{array}{c|cccc} diff --git a/content/blog/03_spa_agda_fixed_height.md b/content/blog/03_spa_agda_fixed_height.md index bb9a987..e2631e1 100644 --- a/content/blog/03_spa_agda_fixed_height.md +++ b/content/blog/03_spa_agda_fixed_height.md @@ -97,7 +97,8 @@ ordering relation `R`/`<` are expected to play together nicely (if `a < b`, and {{< codelines "agda" "agda-spa/Chain.agda" 3 7 >}} From there, the definition of the `Chain` data type is much like the definition -of a vector, but indexed by the endpoints, and containing witnesses of `R`/`<` +of [a vector from `Data.Vec`](https://agda.github.io/agda-stdlib/v2.0/Data.Vec.Base.html#1111), +but indexed by the endpoints, and containing witnesses of `R`/`<` between its elements. The indexing allows for representing the type of chains between particular lattice elements, and serves to ensure concatenation and other operations don't merge disparate chains. diff --git a/content/blog/06_spa_agda_cfg/index.md b/content/blog/06_spa_agda_cfg/index.md index 3ce3dc0..76ecff2 100644 --- a/content/blog/06_spa_agda_cfg/index.md +++ b/content/blog/06_spa_agda_cfg/index.md @@ -10,14 +10,14 @@ draft: true In the previous section, I've given a formal definition of the programming language that I've been trying to analyze. This formal definition serves as the "ground truth" for how our little imperative programs are executed; -however, program analyses (especially in practice) seldom use the formal semantics -as their subject matter. Instead, they focus on more pragmatic program +however, program analyses (especially in practice) seldom take the formal +semantics as input. Instead, they focus on more pragmatic program representations from the world of compilers. One such representation are -_Control Flow Graphs (CFGs)_. +_Control Flow Graphs (CFGs)_. That's what I want to discuss in this post. Let's start by building some informal intuition. CFGs are pretty much what -their name suggests. They are a type of [graph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)). -Edges in CFGs represent how execution might jump from one piece of code to +their name suggests: they are a type of [graph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)); +their edges show how execution might jump from one piece of code to another (how control might flow). For example, take the below program. @@ -40,8 +40,8 @@ The CFG might look like this: Here, the initialization of `x` with `...`, as well as the `if` condition (just `x`), are guaranteed to execute one after another, so they occupy a single node. From there, depending on the condition, the control flow can jump to one of the -branches of the `if` statement: the "then" branch if the condition is true, -and the "else" branch if the condition is false. As a result, there are two +branches of the `if` statement: the "then" branch if the condition is truthy, +and the "else" branch if the condition is falsy. As a result, there are two arrows coming out of the initial node. Once either branch is executed, control always jumps to the code right after the `if` statement (the `y = x`). Thus, both the `x = 1` and `x = 0` nodes have a single arrow to the `y = x` node. @@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ The CFG would look like this: {{< figure src="while-cfg.png" label="CFG for simple `while` code." class="small" >}} -Here, condition of the loop (`x`) is not always guaranteed to execute together +Here, the condition of the loop (`x`) is not always guaranteed to execute together with the code that initializes `x`. That's because the condition of the loop is checked after every iteration, whereas the code before the loop is executed only once. As a result, `x = ...` and `x` occupy distinct CFG nodes. From there, @@ -81,9 +81,8 @@ Now, let's be a bit more precise. Control Flow Graphs are defined as follows: The one-entry-point rule means that it's not possible to jump into the middle of the basic block, executing only half of its instructions. The execution of a basic block always begins at the top. Symmetrically, the one-exit-point - rule means that you can't jump away to other code (even within the same block), - skipping some instructions. The execution of a basic block always ends at - the bottom. + rule means that you can't jump away to other code, skipping some instructions. + The execution of a basic block always ends at the bottom. As a result of these constraints, when running a basic block, you are guaranteed to execute every instruction in exactly the order they occur in, @@ -91,7 +90,7 @@ Now, let's be a bit more precise. Control Flow Graphs are defined as follows: * __The edges__ are jumps between basic blocks. We've already seen how `if` and `while` statements introduce these jumps. -Basic blocks can only be made of code that doen't jump (otherwise, +Basic blocks can only be made of code that doesn't jump (otherwise, we violate the single-exit-point policy). In the previous post, we defined exactly this kind of code as [simple statements]({{< relref "05_spa_agda_semantics#introduce-simple-statements" >}}). So, in our control flow graph, nodes will be sequences of simple statements. @@ -103,7 +102,7 @@ So, in our control flow graph, nodes will be sequences of simple statements. At an abstract level, it's easy to say "it's just a graph where X is Y" about anything. It's much harder to give a precise definition of such a graph, particularly if you want to rule out invalid graphs (e.g., ones with edges -pointing nowhere). In Agda, I chose the represent a two lists: one of nodes, +pointing nowhere). In Agda, I chose the represent a CFG with two lists: one of nodes, and one of edges. Each node is simply a list of `BasicStmt`s, as I described in a preceding paragraph. An edge is simply a pair of numbers, each number encoding the index of the node connected by the edge. @@ -123,7 +122,7 @@ Specifically, `Fin n` is the type of natural numbers less than `n`. Following this definition, `Fin 3` represents the numbers `0`, `1` and `2`. These are represented using the same constructors as `Nat`: `zero` and `suc`. The type of `zero` is `Fin (suc n)` for any `n`; this makes sense because zero is less -than any number plus one. For `suc,` the bound `n` of the input `i` is incremented +than any number plus one. For `suc`, the bound `n` of the input `i` is incremented by one, leading to another `suc n` in the final type. This makes sense because if `i < n`, then `i + 1 < n + 1`. I've previously explained this data type [in another post on this site]({{< relref "01_aoc_coq#aside-vectors-and-finite-mathbbn" >}}). @@ -133,8 +132,8 @@ Here's my definition of `Graph`s written using `Fin`: {{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 24 39 >}} I explicitly used a `size` field, which determines how many nodes are in the -graph, and serves both as the upper bound the edge indices as well as the -size `nodes` field. From there, an index `Index` into the node list is +graph, and serves as the upper bound for the edge indices. From there, an +index `Index` into the node list is {{< sidenote "right" "size-note" "just a natural number less than `size`," >}} Ther are size natural numbers less than size:
0, 1, ..., size - 1. @@ -174,6 +173,133 @@ control would begin once we started executing `code2`). Those are the `outputs` and `inputs`, respectively. When stitching together sequenced control graphs, we will connect each of the outputs of one to each of the inputs of the other. -This is defined by the operation `_↦_`: +This is defined by the operation `g₁ ↦ g₂`, which sequences two graphs `g₁` and `g₂`: {{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 72 83 >}} + +The definition starts out pretty innocuous, but gets a bit complicated by the +end. The sum of the numbers of nodes in the two operands becomes the new graph +size, and the nodes from the two graphs are all included in the result. Then, +the definitions start making use of various operators like `↑ˡᵉ` and `↑ʳᵉ`; +these deserve an explanation. + +The tricky thing is that when we're concatenating lists of nodes, we are changing +some of the indices of the elements within. For instance, in the lists +`[x]` and `[y]`, the indices of both `x` and `y` are `0`; however, in the +concatenated list `[x, y]`, the index of `x` is still `0`, but the index of `y` +is `1`. More generally, when we concatenate two lists `l1` and `l2`, the indices +into `l1` remain unchanged, whereas the indices `l2` are shifted `length l2`. + +Actually, that's not all there is to it. The _values_ of the indices into +the left list don't change, but their types do! They start as `Fin (length l1)`, +but for the whole list, these same indices will have type `Fin (length l1 + length l2))`. + +To help deal with this, Agda provides the operators +[`↑ˡ`](https://agda.github.io/agda-stdlib/v2.0/Data.Fin.Base.html#2355) +and [`↑ʳ`](https://agda.github.io/agda-stdlib/v2.0/Data.Fin.Base.html#2522) +that implement this re-indexing and re-typing. The former implements "re-indexing +on the left" -- given an index into the left list `l1`, it changes its type +by adding the other list's length to it, but keeps the index value itself +unchanged. The latter implements "re-indexing on the right" -- given an index +into the right list `l2`, it adds the length of the first list to it (shifting it), +and does the same to its type. + +The definition leads to the following equations: + +```Agda +l1 : Vec A n +l2 : Vec A m + +idx1 : Fin n -- index into l1 +idx2 : Fin m -- index into l2 + +l1 [ idx1 ] ≡ (l1 ++ l2) [ idx1 ↑ˡ m ] +l2 [ idx2 ] ≡ (l1 ++ l2) [ n ↑ʳ idx2 ] +``` + +The operators used in the definition above are just versions of the same +re-indexing operators. The `↑ˡᵉ` operator applies `↑ˡ` to all the (__e__)dges +in a graph, and the `↑ˡi` applies it to all the (__i__)ndices in a list +(like `inputs` and `outputs`). + +Given these definitions, hopefully the intent with the rest of the definition +is not too hard to see. The edges in the new graph come from three places: +the graph `g₁` and `g₂`, and from creating a new edge from each of the outputs +of `g₁` to each of the inputs of `g₂`. We keep the inputs of `g₁` as the +inputs of the whole graph (since `g₁` comes first), and symmetrically we keep +the outputs of `g₂`. Of course, we do have to re-index them to keep them +pointing at the right nodes. + +Another operation we will need is "overlaying" two graphs: this will be like +placing them in parallel, without adding jumps between the two. We use this +operation when combining the sub-CFGs of the "if" and "else" branches of an +`if`/`else`, which both follow the condition, and both proceed to the code after +the conditional. + +{{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 59 70 >}} + +Everything here is just concatenation; we pool together the nodes, edges, +inputs, and outputs, and the main source of complexity is the re-indexing. + +The one last operation, which we will use for `while` loops, is looping. This +operation simply connects the outputs of a graph back to its inputs (allowing +looping), and also allows the body to be skipped. This is slightly different +from the graph for `while` loops I showed above; the reason for that is that +I currently don't include the conditional expressions in my CFG. This is a +limitation that I will address in future work. + +{{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 85 95 >}} + +Given these thee operations, I construct Control Flow Graphs as follows, where +`singleton` creates a new CFG node with the given list of simple statements: + +{{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 122 126 >}} + +Throughout this, I've been liberal to include empty CFG nodes as was convenient. +This is a departure from the formal definition I gave above, but it makes +things much simpler. + +### Additional Functions + +To integrate Control Flow Graphs into our lattice-based program analyses, we'll +need to do a couple of things. First, upon reading the +[reference _Static Program Analysis_ text](https://cs.au.dk/~amoeller/spa/), +one sees a lot of quantification over the predecessors or successors of a +given CFG node. For example, the following equation is from Chapter 5: + +{{< latex >}} +\textit{JOIN}(v) = \bigsqcup_{w \in \textit{pred}(v)} \llbracket w \rrbracket +{{< /latex >}} + +To compute the \(\textit{JOIN}\) function (which we have not covered yet) for +a given CFG node, we need to iterate over all of its predecessors, and +combine their static information using \(\sqcup\), which I first +[explained several posts ago]({{< relref "01_spa_agda_lattices#least-upper-bound" >}}). +To be able to iterate over them, we need to be able to retrieve the predecessors +of a node from a graph! + +Our encoding does not make computing the predecessors particularly easy; to +check if two nodes are connected, we need to check if an `Index`-`Index` pair +corresponding to the nodes is present in the `edges` list. To this end, we need +to be able to compare edges for equality. Fortunately, it's relatively +straightforward to show that our edges can be compared in such a way; +after all, they are just pairs of `Fin`s, and `Fin`s and products support +these comparisons. + +{{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 149 152 >}} + +Next, if we can compare edges for equality, we can check if an edge is in +a list. Agda provides a built-in function for this: + +{{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 154 154 >}} + +To find the predecessors of a particular node, we go through all other nodes +in the graph and see if there's an edge there between those nodes and the +current one. This is preferable to simply iterating over the edges because +we may have duplicates in that list (why not?). + +{{< codelines "Agda" "agda-spa/Language/Graphs.agda" 165 166 >}} + +{{< todo >}} +the rest +{{< /todo >}}