Write up type code

code/compiler/03/type.cpp

@@ -3,18 +3,17 @@
 #include <algorithm>
 
 std::string type_mgr::new_type_name() {
-    std::ostringstream oss;
     int temp = last_id++;
+    std::string str = "";
 
-    do {
-        oss << (char) ('a' + (temp % 26));
-        temp /= 26;
-    } while(temp);
-    std::string str = oss.str();
+    while(temp != -1) {
+        str += (char) ('a' + (temp % 26));
+        temp = temp / 26 - 1;
+    }
 
     std::reverse(str.begin(), str.end());
     return str;
-};
+}
 
 type_ptr type_mgr::new_type() {
     return type_ptr(new type_var(new_type_name()));
@@ -23,3 +22,57 @@ type_ptr type_mgr::new_type() {
 type_ptr type_mgr::new_arrow_type() {
     return type_ptr(new type_arr(new_type(), new_type()));
 }
+
+type_ptr type_mgr::resolve(type_ptr t, type_var*& var) {
+    type_var* cast;
+
+    var = nullptr;
+    while((cast = dynamic_cast<type_var*>(t.get()))) {
+        auto it = types.find(cast->name);
+
+        if(it == types.end()) {
+            var = cast;
+            break;
+        }
+        t = it->second;
+    }
+
+    return t;
+}
+
+void type_mgr::unify(type_ptr l, type_ptr r) {
+    type_var* lvar;
+    type_var* rvar;
+    type_arr* larr;
+    type_arr* rarr;
+    type_base* lid;
+    type_base* rid;
+
+    l = resolve(l, lvar);
+    r = resolve(r, rvar);
+
+    if(lvar) {
+        bind(lvar->name, r);
+        return;
+    } else if(rvar) {
+        bind(rvar->name, l);
+        return;
+    } else if((larr = dynamic_cast<type_arr*>(l.get())) &&
+            (rarr = dynamic_cast<type_arr*>(r.get()))) {
+        unify(larr->left, rarr->left);
+        unify(larr->right, rarr->right);
+        return;
+    } else if((lid = dynamic_cast<type_base*>(l.get())) &&
+            (rid = dynamic_cast<type_base*>(r.get()))) {
+        if(lid->name == rid->name) return;
+    }
+
+    throw 0;
+}
+
+void type_mgr::bind(std::string s, type_ptr t) {
+    type_var* other = dynamic_cast<type_var*>(t.get());
+    
+    if(other && other->name == s) return;
+    types[s] = t;
+}

code/compiler/03/type.hpp

@@ -15,11 +15,11 @@ struct type_var : public type {
         : name(std::move(n)) {}
 };
 
-struct type_id : public type {
-    int id;
+struct type_base : public type {
+    std::string name;
 
-    type_id(int i) 
-        : id(i) {}
+    type_base(std::string n) 
+        : name(std::move(n)) {}
 };
 
 struct type_arr : public type {
@@ -32,8 +32,13 @@ struct type_arr : public type {
 
 struct type_mgr {
     int last_id = 0;
+    std::map<std::string, type_ptr> types;
 
     std::string new_type_name();
     type_ptr new_type();
     type_ptr new_arrow_type();
+
+    void unify(type_ptr l, type_ptr r);
+    type_ptr resolve(type_ptr t, type_var*& var);
+    void bind(std::string s, type_ptr t);
 };

content/blog/03_compiler_trees.md

@@ -295,4 +295,121 @@ through \\(\\tau\_n\\), then the each variable will have a corresponding type.
 We didn't include lambda expressions in our syntax, and thus we won't need typing rules for them,
 so it actually seems like we're done with the first draft of our type rules.
 
-{{< todo >}}Cite 006_hindley_milner on implementation of bind. {{< /todo >}}.
+#### Implementation
+Let's work towards some code. Before we write anything down though, let's
+get a definition of what a "type" is, in the context of our type checker.
+Let's say a type is one of 3 things:
+
+1. A "base type", like `Int`, `Bool`, or `List`.
+2. A type that's a function from one type to another.
+3. A placeholder / type variable (like the kind we used for type inference).
+
+We represent a plceholder type with a unique string, such as "a", or "b",
+and this makes our placeholder type class very similar to the base type class.
+
+{{< codeblock "C++" "compiler/03/type.hpp" >}}
+
+As you can see, we also declared a `type_mgr`, or type manager class.
+This class will keep the state used for generating more placeholder
+type names, as well as the information about which
+placeholder type is mapped to what. We gave it 3 methods:
+
+* `unify`, to perform unification. It will take two types and
+find values for placeholder variables such that they can
+equal.
+* `resolve`, to get to the "bottom" of a chain of equations.
+For instance, we have placeholder `a` be mapped to a placeholder
+`b`, an finally, the placeholder `b` to be mapped to `Int`.
+`resolve` will return for us `Int`, and, if the "bottom"
+of the chain is a placeholder, it will set `var` to be a pointer
+to that placeholder.
+* `bind`, inspired by [this post](http://dev.stephendiehl.com/fun/006_hindley_milner.html),
+will map a type variable of some name to a type. This function will also check if
+the thing we're binding to is the same type variable and not do anything in that case,
+since `a = a` is not a very useful equation to have.
+
+To fit its original purpose, we also give the manager class the methods
+`new_type_name`, and two convenience methods to create placeholder types,
+`new_type` (in the form `a`) and `new_arrow_type` (in the form `a->b`).
+
+Let's take a look at the implementation now:
+
+{{< codeblock "C++" "compiler/03/type.cpp" >}}
+
+Here, `new_type_name` is actually pretty boring. My goal
+was to generate type names like `a`, then `b`, eventually getting
+to `z`, and then move on to `aa`. This provides is with an
+endless stream of placeholder types.
+
+Time for the interesting functions. `resolve` keeps
+trying `dynamic_cast` to a type variable, and if that succeeds,
+then either:
+
+1. It's a type variable that's already been set
+to something, in which case we try resolve the thing it was
+set to (`t = it->second`)
+2. It's a type variable that hasn't been set to something.
+We set `var` to it (the caller will use this info),
+and stop our resolution loop (`break`).
+
+In `unify`, we start by calling `resolve` - we don't want
+to accidentally compare `a` and `b` (and try to bind `a` to
+`b`) when `a` is already bound to something else (like `Int`).
+
+From resolve, we will have `lvar` and `rvar` set to
+something not NULL if `l` or `r` were type variables
+that haven't been yet mapped (we defined `resolve` to behave this way).
+So, if one of the variables is not NULL, we try to bind it.
+
+Next, `unify` checks if both types are either base types or
+arrow types. If they're base types, it compares their names,
+and if they're arrow types, it recursively unifies their children.
+We return in all cases when unification succeeds, and then throw
+an exception (currently 0) if all the cases fell thorugh, and thus,
+unification failed.
+
+Finally, `bind` places the type we're binding to into
+the `types` map, but not before it checks that the type
+we're binding is the same as the string we're binding it to
+(since, again, `a=a` is not a useful equation).
+
+We now have a unification algorithm, but we still
+need to implement our rules. Our rules
+usually include three things: an environment
+\\(\\Gamma\\), an expression \\(e\\),
+and a type \\(\\tau\\). We will
+represent this as a method on `ast`, which is
+our representation of an expression \\(e\\). This
+method will take an environment and return
+a type.
+
+But first, how should we implement our environment?
+Conceptually, an environment maps a name string
+to a type. So naively, we can implement this simply
+using an `std::map`. But observe
+that we only extend the environment in one case so far:
+a case expression. In a case expression, we have the base
+envrionment \\(\\Gamma\\), and for each branch,
+we extend it with the bindings produced by
+the pattern match. Each branch receives a modified
+copy of the original environment, one that
+doesn't see the effects of the other branches.
+
+Using our naive approach, we'd create a new `std::map` for
+each branch that's a copy of the original environment,
+and place into it the new pairs. But this means we'll
+need to copy a map for each branch of the pattern!
+
+There's a better way. We structure our environment like
+a linked list. Each node in the linked list
+contains an `std::map`. When we encounter a new
+scope (such as in a case branch), we create a new such node, and add all
+variables introduced in this scope to that node's map. We make
+it point to our current environment. Then, we pass around the new node
+as the environment.
+
+When we look up a variable name, we first look in this node we created. 
+If we don't find the variable we're looking for, we move on to the next
+node. The benefit of this is that we won't be re-creating a map
+for each branch, and just creating a node with the changes.
+Let's implement exactly that: