813 lines
38 KiB
Markdown
813 lines
38 KiB
Markdown
---
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title: "Proving My Compiler Code Incorrect With Alloy"
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date: 2023-06-04T21:56:00-07:00
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tags: ["Chapel", "Compilers", "Alloy"]
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description: "In this post, I apply Alloy to a piece of code in the Chapel compiler to find a bug."
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---
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__Disclaimer:__ though "my compiler code" makes for a fun title, I do not
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claim exclusive credit for any of the C++ code in the Chapel compiler that
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I mention in this post. The code is "mine" in the sense that I was
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debugging changes I was making, and perhaps also in the sense that I was
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working with it.
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I work as a compiler developer on the [Chapel](https://chapel-lang.org) team.
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Recently, while thinking through a change to some code, I caught myself
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making wishes: "if only I could have a computer check this property for
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me". Having at some point seen [Hillel Wayne's post](https://www.hillelwayne.com/post/alloy6/)
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about the release of [Alloy 6](https://alloytools.org/), I thought I'd give it
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a go. In this post, I describe my experience applying Alloy to a real part of
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the Chapel compiler. I'd never touched Alloy before this, so be warned: this
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is what I came up with on my own attempt, and I may well be doing something
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fairly silly by the standards of "real" Alloy users.
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### The Problem at Hand
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One of the things that a language like Chapel has to do is called _resolution_,
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which is the process of figuring out what each identifier, like `x`, refers to,
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and what its type is. Even the first part of that is pretty complicated, what
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with public and private variables, methods (which can be declared outside
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of their receiver type in Chapel), and more...
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Scope resolution in Chapel is further complicated by the fact that the same
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scope might need to be searched multiple times, in different contexts. Let
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me start with a few examples to illustrate what I mean. Here's the first
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program:
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```Chapel {linenos=true}
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module M {
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class C {}
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// A regular procedure (not a method)
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proc foo() {}
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// A method on C.
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proc C.foo() {}
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// Another method on C.
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proc C.doSomething() {
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foo();
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}
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}
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```
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If you don't know Chapel (and you probably don't!) this program already merits a fair
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bit of explanation. I've collapsed it for the sake of visual clarity; feel
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free to expand the below section to learn more about the language features
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used in the program above.
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{{< details summary="Click here for an explanation of the above code snippet" >}}
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A _module_ in Chapel (declared via a `module` keyword)
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is just a collection of definitions. Such definitions could include variables,
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methods, classes and more. Putting them in a module helps group them.
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A _class_ in Chapel (declared via a `class` keyword) is much like a class in
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object oriented languages. The class `C` that we're creating on line 2 doesn't
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have any fields or methods -- at least not yet. We will, however, add methods
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to it using Chapel's _secondary method_ mechanism (more on that in a moment).
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The `proc` keyword is used to create functions and methods. On line 5, we
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create a procedure called `foo` that does nothing. On line 8, because we
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write `C.foo` instead of just `foo`, we're actually creating a method on
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the class `C` we declared earlier. This method does nothing too. Notice
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that although declaring classes in Chapel works about the same as declaring
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classes in other languages, it's fairly unusual to be able to declare a
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class method (like the `foo` on line 8 in this case) outside of the `class
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C { ... }` section of code. This is part of the reason that Chapel method
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resolution is complicated (methods can be declared anywhere!). The only
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other language that I know of that supports this feature is Kotlin with its
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[extension function
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mechanism](https://kotlinlang.org/docs/extensions.html), but it's possible
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that other languages have similar functionality.
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{{< /details >}}
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The interesting part of the snippet is the body of the `doSomething` method.
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It has a call to `foo`: but which `foo` is it referring to? There are two:
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the regular procedure (non-method) `foo`, declared on line 5, and the
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method `C.foo` declared on line 8. In Chapel, the rules dictate that when
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such a situation arises, and a fitting method is found, the method is
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preferred to the non-method. In the rewritten version of the Chapel compiler,
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titled Dyno, this disambiguation is achieved by first searching the scopes
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visible from the class `C` for methods only. In this particular example,
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the two scopes searched will be:
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1. The inside of class `C`. The class itself doesn't define any methods, so
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nothing is found.
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2. The module in which `C` is defined (`M` in this case). This module does
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have a method, the one on line 8, so that one is returned.
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Only if methods are not found are non-methods considered. In this situation,
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the search order will be as follows:
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1. The inside of `C.doSomething` will be searched. `doSomething` doesn't declare
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anything, so the search will come up empty.
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2. The module in which `C.doSomething` is defined (`M` again) will be searched. This time,
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both methods and non-methods will be considered. Since we're considering
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a hypothetical situation in which the method `C.foo` isn't there (otherwise
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it would've been found earlier), the only thing that will be found will
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be the non-method `foo`.
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Notice that we've already had to search the module `M` twice, looking for
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different things each time. First, we were looking for only methods, but
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later, we were looking for anything. However, this isn't as complicated as
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things can get. The simplifying aspect of this program is that both `doSomething`
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and `C` are defined inside the module `M`, and therefore have access to its
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private methods and procedures. If we extracted `C.doSomething` into its
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own separate module, the program would look like this.
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```Chapel {linenos=true}
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module M1 {
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class C {}
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// A regular procedure (not a method)
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proc foo() {}
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// A method on C.
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proc C.foo() {}
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}
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module M2 {
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use super.M1;
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// Another method on C.
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proc C.doSomething() {
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foo();
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}
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}
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```
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Since `doSomething` is now in another module, it can't just access the `foo`s from
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`M1` willy-nilly. There are a few ways to get the things that were declared in another module out
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and make use of them. I opted for a `use` statement, which, in its simplest form,
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just brings all the declarations inside the `use`d module into the current scope. Thus,
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the `use` statement on line 11 would bring all things declared in `M1` into
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the scope inside `M2`. There's a catch, though. Since `M2` is not declared
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inside `M1`, a `use` statement will not be able to bring in _private_ symbols
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from `M1` (they're private for a reason!). So, this time, when searching the scope
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for `M1`, we will have to search only for public symbols. That's another,
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different way of searching `M1`. So far, we've seen three:
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* Search `M1` for any symbol.
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* Search `M1` for methods only.
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* Search `M1` for public symbols only.
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Dyno introduces more ways to search within a scope, including combinations of
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search types, such as looking only for public methods. To represent the various
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search configurations, the Dyno team came up with using a bitfield of _flags_,
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each of which indicated a necessary condition for a symbol to be returned. A
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bitfield with flags set for two properties (like "public" and "method") requires
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that both such properties be found on each symbol that's returned from a scope.
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This led to C++ code along the lines of:
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```C++
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auto allPublicSymbols = Flags::PUBLIC;
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auto allPublicMethods = Flags::PUBLIC | Flags::METHOD;
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```
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It also turned out convenient to add negative versions of each flag
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(`NOT_PUBLIC` for private symbols, `NOT_METHOD` for regular old procedures
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and other definitions, and so on. So, some other possible flag combinations
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include:
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```C++
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auto allNonMethods = Flags::NOT_METHOD;
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auto privateMethods = Flags::NOT_PUBLIC | Flags::METHOD;
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```
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Given these flags, there are some situations in which checking a scope a
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second time is redundant, in that it is guaranteed to find no additional
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symbols. For instance, if you search a scope for all public symbols, and
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then subsequently search for all public methods, you will only find
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duplicates -- after all, all public methods are public symbols. Most
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generally, this occurs when a second search has all the flags from a
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previous search, and maybe more. In math lingo, if the set of flags checked
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the first time is a subset of the set of flags checked the second time,
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it's guaranteed not to find anything new.
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In Dyno, we like to avoid additional work when we can. To do so, we track
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which scopes have already been searched, and avoid searching them again.
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Since what comes up from a search depends on the flags, we store the flags
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alongside the scopes we've checked. __If we find that the previously-checked
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bitfield is a subset of the current bitset, we just skip the search__.
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But then, what if it _isn't_ a subset? Another concern here is avoiding
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duplicate results (it's easier to check for duplicate definitions if you
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know a symbol is only returned from a search once). So, another feature of
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Dyno's scope search is an additional bitfield of what to _exclude_, which we
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set to be the previous search's filter. So if the first search looked for
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symbols matching description \\(A\\), and the second search is supposed to
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look for symbols matching description \\(B\\), __then really we do a search
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for \\(A \\land \\lnot B\\) (that is, \\(A\\) and not \\(B\\))__.
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{{< dialog >}}
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{{< message "question" "reader" >}}
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Hold on, why do you need a whole another bitfield? There are already negated
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versions of each flag available. Can't you just add those to the filter?
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{{< /message >}}
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{{< message "answer" "Daniel" >}}
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Good question. The difference is a little bit tricky. If we just negated
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each flag, we'd turn an expression like \(A \land B\) into \(\lnot A \land
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\lnot B\). However, according to <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws">De Morgan's laws</a>, the proper negation of
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\(A \land B\) is \(\lnot A \lor \lnot B\) (notice the use of "or" instead
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of "and"). On the other hand, using an "exclude" bitfield negates the whole
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conjunction, rather than the individual flags, and so gives us the result
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we need.
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{{< /message >}}
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{{< /dialog >}}
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One last thing: what happens if there were two previous searches? What we
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need is to to somehow combine the two filters into one. Taking a cue from
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a previous example, in which "public" was followed by "public methods", we
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can observe that since the second search has additional flags, it's more
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restrictive, and thus guaranteed to not find anything. __So we try to create
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the least restrictive bitfield possible, by taking an intersection of the
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flags used.__
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Actually, that last point is not quite correct in every possible case
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(taking the intersection is not always the right thing to do).
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However, running the code through our test suite, we did not notice any
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cases in which it misbehaved. So, noting the potential issue in a comment,
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we moved on to other things.
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That is, until I decided that it was time to add another possible flag to
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the bitfield. At that point, sitting and trying to reason about the
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possible cases, I realized that it would be much nicer to describe this
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mathematically, and have a model checker generate outlandish scenarios for
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me.
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### Modeling Flags and Bitsets in Alloy
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Flags are represented on the C++ side as an `enum` (with custom indexing so
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as to make each flag be exactly one bit). I checked, and it looked like
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Alloy had an `enum` feature, too! I started off by making an enum of the
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flags I wanted to play with.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 1 1 >}}
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We haven't seen the `MethodOrField` flag, but it's an important one. It
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turns out that it's much more common to look for anything that could be
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part of a class, rather than just its methods. This flag is itself an "or"
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of two properties (something being a method and something being a class
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field). Note that this is not the same as having two flags, `Method` and
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`Field`, and always including them together (because that would be an
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"and", not an "or").
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Notice also that the list of flags doesn't include the negative versions.
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Since the negative versions are one-for-one with the positive ones, I
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instead chose to represent bitfields as simply two sets: one set of
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"positive" flags, in which the presence of e.g. `Method` indicates that the
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`METHOD` flag was set, and one set of "negative" flags, in which the
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presence of `Method` indicates that `NOT_METHOD` was set. This way, I'm
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guaranteed that there's a positive and negative version of each flag,
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automatically. Here's how I wrote that in Alloy.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 6 9 >}}
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This definition (a _signature_ in Alloy terms) specifies what a bitfield is
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like, but not any operations on it. My next order of business is to define
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some common functionality on bitfields. Alloy is all about
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[relations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_(mathematics)) and
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[predicates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)),
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so for all of these, I had to effectively write something that _checks_ if
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some condition holds for some arguments. This might seem abstract; as an
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example, here's `bitfieldEmpty`, which checks that a bitfield has no flags
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set.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 26 28 >}}
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The `#` operator in Alloy is used to check the size of a set. So, to check
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if a bitfield is empty, I simply check if there are neither positive nor
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negative flags. Probably the most unusual aspect of this piece of code is
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that equality is written as `=`, as opposed to `==` like in most common
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languages. This is because, like I said, Alloy is all about relations and
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predicates, and not at all about imperative manipulation of data. So,
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there's no need to reserve `=` for assignment.
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The next step from here is a predicate that accepts two arguments,
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`bitfieldEqual`. As its name suggests, this predicate accepts two
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bitfields, and makes sure they have exactly the same flags set.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 30 32 >}}
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So far, this has been pretty similar to just writing boolean functions in a
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language like C++. However, the similarity is only superficial. An easy way
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to see that is to try to determine the _intersection_ of two bitfields --
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that's the operation we will be having to model, since the Dyno
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implementation uses `&` to combine filter sets. In a language like C++, you
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might write a function like the following, in which you accept two bitfield
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arguments and return a new bitfield.
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```C++
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Bitfield intersection(Bitfield b1, Bitfield b2) { /* ... */ }
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```
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However, in Alloy, you can't create a new bitfield, nor return something
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from a `pred` that isn't a boolean. Instead, you describe how the inputs
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will be related to the output. So, to model a binary function, you end up
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with a three-parameter predicate: two inputs, and one output. But how
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_does_ the output of a bitfield intersection connect to the two operands
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being intersected? Well, its two flag sets will be intersections of the
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flag sets of the inputs!
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 34 37 >}}
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Next, let's talk about what flags _do_. They are used to include and
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exclude symbols based on certain properties. One property is being a
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method: a `METHOD` flag requires this property, whereas a `NOT_METHOD` flag
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ensures that a symbol does not have it. Another property is being a public
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definition: if a symbol isn't public, it'll be ignored by searches with the
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`PUBLIC` flag set. Just like a bitfield can have multiple flags, a symbol
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can have multiple properties (e.g., a public method). Unlike our bitfields,
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though, we won't be modeling symbols as having both positive and negative
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properties. That is to say, we won't have a "not public" property: the
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absence of the "public" property will be enough to make something private.
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Here's the Alloy definition for everything I just said:
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 59 63 >}}
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Now, we can specify how flags in a bitfield relate to properties on a
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symbol. We can do so by saying which flags match which properties. The
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`Method` flag, for instance, will be satisfied by the `PMethod` property.
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The `MethodOrField` flag is more lenient, and will be satisfied by either
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`PMethod` or `PField`. Here's a predicate `flagMatchesProperty` that
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encodes all the flag-property combinations:
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 65 69 >}}
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A bitfield matching a symbol is a little bit more complicated. Said
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informally, the condition for a bitfield matching a symbol is twofold:
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* Every single positive flag, like `METHOD`, must be satisfied by a
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property on the symbol.
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* None of the negative flags, like `NOT_METHOD`, must be satisfied by a
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property on the symbol (that is to say, if `Method` is in the negative
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flags set, then the symbol must not have `PMethod` property). It is more
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conveniently to formulate this -- equivalently -- as follows: for each
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negative flag, there must not be a property that satisfies it.
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Each of the above two conditions translates quite literally into Alloy:
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 71 74 >}}
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We can read line 73 as "for each flag in a bitfield's positive flags, there
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must be some property in the symbol that matches it". Similarly, line 74
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can be read out loud as "for each flag in the negative flags, no property
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in the symbol must match it".
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We've written a fair bit of Alloy. If you're anything like me, you might be
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getting a bit twitchy: how do we even check that any of this works? For
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this, we'll need to run our model. We will give Alloy a claim, and ask
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it to find a situation in which that claim holds true. The simplest claim
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is "there exists a bitfield".
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 76 78 >}}
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Executing this model yields a pretty interesting bitfield: one in which every single flag is set -- both the positive and negative versions.
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{{< figure src="bitfield_exists.png" caption="Alloy's output satisfying \"a bit field exists\"" >}}
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That's a little bit ridiculous: this bitfield will never match anything!
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You can't be and not be a method at the same time, for instance. For for a
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more interesting example, let's ask for a bitfield that matches some
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symbol.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 80 82 >}}
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The output here is pretty interesting too. Alloy finds a symbol and a
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bitfield that matches it, but they're both empty. In effect, it said:
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"if you don't specify any filters, any private definition will match". Fair
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enough, of course, but a curious departure from the previous maximalist
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"put in all the flags!" approach.
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{{< figure src="matching_bitfield_exists.png" caption="Alloy's output satisfying \"a bit field that matches a symbol exists\"" >}}
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Let's try nudge it towards a more interesting case. I'm going to ask for a
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filter with one positive and one negative flag, and a symbol with two
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properties.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 84 91 >}}
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The results are more interesting this time: we get a filter for private
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methods, and a private symbol that was... both a field and a method?
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{{< figure src="matching_bitfield_exists_2.png" caption="Alloy's spiced up output satisfying \"a bit field that matches a symbol exists\"" >}}
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We never told Alloy that a symbol can't be both a field and a method. It
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had no idea what the flags meant, just that they exist.
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To let Alloy know what we do -- that the two properties are incompatible --
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we can use a _fact_. To me, the most natural way of phrasing this is "there
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is never a symbol that has both the method and field properties". Alas,
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Alloy doesn't have a `never` keyword; it only has `always`. So I opt instead
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for an alternative formulation: "there are always zero symbols that are
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both methods and fields". In Alloy, the claim looks like this:
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 93 98 >}}
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Re-running the example program with this fact, Alloy spits out a filter for
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public non-method symbols, and a symbol that's a public field. Public
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fields also aren't a thing in Chapel (all fields in a class are publicly
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readable in the current version of the language). Perhaps it's time for
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another fact.
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{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 99 103 >}}
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But now, Alloy fails to come up with anything at all. That makes sense: by
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restricting the search to a symbol with two properties, and making `PField`
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incompatible with the other two possible properties, we've guaranteed that
|
|
our symbol would be a public method. But then, we also required a negative
|
|
flag in the filter; however, all the flags in the list match a public
|
|
method, so making any of them negative would guarantee that our symbol
|
|
would not be found. Let's change the example up a bit to only ask for
|
|
positive flags.
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 105 111 >}}
|
|
|
|
This time, Alloy gives us a symbol that's a public method, and a filter
|
|
that only looks for public methods. Fair enough.
|
|
|
|
{{< figure src="matching_bitfield_exists_3.png" caption="Alloy's spiced up output satisfying \"a bit field that matches a symbol exists\"" >}}
|
|
|
|
### Exploring Possible Search Configurations
|
|
So now we have a descriptioin of filters and symbols in scopes. The next thing
|
|
on the itinerary is modeling how the filters (include and exclude) are
|
|
configured during scope search in Dyno. For this, let's take a look at the
|
|
C++ code in Dyno.
|
|
|
|
I'll be using the branch that I was working on at the time of trying to
|
|
apply Alloy. First, here's the code in C++ that defines the various flags
|
|
I'd be working with (though I've omitted flags that are not currently
|
|
used in the implementation).
|
|
|
|
{{< githubsnippet "chapel-lang/chapel" "390187df504f58cbf721a87d5632cdf7ea37563f" "frontend/include/chpl/resolution/scope-types.h" "C++" 45 >}}
|
|
enum {
|
|
/** Public */
|
|
PUBLIC = 1,
|
|
/** Not public (aka private) */
|
|
NOT_PUBLIC = 2,
|
|
/** A method or field declaration */
|
|
METHOD_FIELD = 4,
|
|
/** Something other than (a method or field declaration) */
|
|
NOT_METHOD_FIELD = 8,
|
|
/** A method declaration */
|
|
METHOD = 64,
|
|
/** Something other than a method declaration */
|
|
NOT_METHOD = 128,
|
|
};
|
|
{{< /githubsnippet >}}
|
|
|
|
These are the flags that we model using a `Bitset`: `PUBLIC`,
|
|
`METHOD_FIELD`, and `METHOD` are modeled using `positiveFlags`, and
|
|
`NOT_PUBLIC`, `NOT_METHOD_FIELD`, and `NOT_METHOD` are modeled using
|
|
`negativeFlags`. There are a lot of flags here, and it's not hard to
|
|
imagine that _some_ combination of these flags will cause problems in our
|
|
system (particularly when we _know_ it's an approximation). However, the
|
|
flags aren't used arbitrarily; in fact, it wasn't too hard to track down the
|
|
most important place in the code where bitsets are built.
|
|
|
|
{{< githubsnippet "chapel-lang/chapel" "390187df504f58cbf721a87d5632cdf7ea37563f" "frontend/lib/resolution/scope-queries.cpp" "C++" 914 >}}
|
|
IdAndFlags::Flags curFilter = 0;
|
|
/* ... some unrelated code ... */
|
|
if (skipPrivateVisibilities) {
|
|
curFilter |= IdAndFlags::PUBLIC;
|
|
}
|
|
if (onlyMethodsFields) {
|
|
curFilter |= IdAndFlags::METHOD_FIELD;
|
|
} else if (!includeMethods && receiverScopes.empty()) {
|
|
curFilter |= IdAndFlags::NOT_METHOD;
|
|
}
|
|
{{< /githubsnippet >}}
|
|
|
|
The above code converts the current search parameters into `Bitfield`
|
|
flags. For instance, if a `use` statement is being processed that doesn't
|
|
have access to private fields, `skipPrivateVisibilities` will be set.
|
|
On the other hand, if the calling code didn't explicitly ask for methods,
|
|
and if there's no method receiver, then the last condition will be true.
|
|
These various conditions are converted into bits and applied to
|
|
`curFilter`. Then, `curFilter` is used for looking up symbols in a scope.
|
|
|
|
It's not too hard to model this by just looking at the code, and
|
|
enumerating the possibilities. The first `if` statement can either be true
|
|
or false, and then the subsequent `if`-`else` chain creates three
|
|
possibilities in each case: either `METHOD_FIELD` is set, or `NOT_METHOD`,
|
|
or nothing.
|
|
|
|
However, I envisioned this condition to possibly grow in complexity as more
|
|
search configurations became necessary (in that, the `NOT_METHOD` option
|
|
was an addition in my new branch). I therefore chose to model the possible
|
|
`Bitfield` values more faithfully, by mimicking the imperative C++ code.
|
|
|
|
{{< dialog >}}
|
|
{{< message "question" "reader" >}}
|
|
Wait, something sounds off. Just earlier, you said Alloy "is not at all about
|
|
imperative manipulation of data". But now, we're going to mimic plain
|
|
imperative C++ code?
|
|
{{< /message >}}
|
|
{{< message "answer" "Daniel" >}}
|
|
Alloy the programming language is still not imperative. However, we can
|
|
<em>model</em> imperative behavior in Alloy. The way I see it, doing so
|
|
requires us to venture a tiny bit into the realm of <em>semantics</em>
|
|
for programming languages, in particular for imperative languages. This
|
|
"venture" is very minimal though, and you really don't need to know much
|
|
about semantics to understand it.
|
|
{{< /message >}}
|
|
{{< message "question" "reader" >}}
|
|
Alright. How does one model imperative behavior in Alloy?
|
|
{{< /message >}}
|
|
{{< message "answer" "Daniel" >}}
|
|
On to that next.
|
|
{{< /message >}}
|
|
{{< /dialog >}}
|
|
|
|
The essential piece of insight to modeling an imperative language, though
|
|
it sounds a little bit tautological, is that _statements are all about
|
|
manipulating state_. For example, state could be the value of a variable.
|
|
If you start with the variable `x` storing the number `6`, and then execute
|
|
the statement `x = x * 7`, the final value of `x` will be `42`. Thus, state
|
|
has changed. To put this in terms Alloy would understand -- relations and
|
|
sets -- a statement connects (relates) states before it's executed to states
|
|
after it's executed. In our particular example, the connection would
|
|
between the state `x = 6` and the state `x = 42`. In the case of adding the
|
|
`PUBLIC` to `curFilter`, as on line 917 in the above code block, we could
|
|
state the relationship as follows:
|
|
|
|
```Alloy
|
|
addBitfieldFlag[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldAfter, Public]
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
The above code states that `bitfieldAfter` (the state _after_ line 917) is
|
|
the same `Bitfield` as `bitfieldBefore` (the state _before_ line 917), except
|
|
that the `Public` flag has been added to it.
|
|
|
|
Things are a little more complicated when it comes to modeling the whole
|
|
`if`-statement on line 916. If we wanted to be very precise, we'd need to
|
|
encode the other variables (such as `skipPrivateVisibilities`), how they're
|
|
set, and what values are possible. However, for the sake of keeping the
|
|
scope of this model manageable for the time being, I'm content to do
|
|
something simpler -- that is, acknowledge that the code on line 917 may or
|
|
may not run. If it does run, our previous `addBitfieldFlag` will be the
|
|
correct restriction on the before and after states. However, if it doesn't,
|
|
the state shouldn't change at all. Therefore, we can model lines 916
|
|
through 918 as follows (notice the `or`):
|
|
|
|
```Alloy
|
|
addBitfieldFlag[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldAfter, Public] or
|
|
bitfieldEqual[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldAfter]
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
The next thing to note is that there are two `if` statements one after another.
|
|
The state "after" the first statement is one and the same as the state
|
|
"before" the second statement. Using arrows to represent the "before-after"
|
|
relationship created by each statement, we can visualize the whole
|
|
situation as follows:
|
|
|
|
{{< latex >}}
|
|
\text{initial state}
|
|
\xRightarrow{\text{first statement}}
|
|
\text{middle state}
|
|
\xRightarrow{\text{second statement}}
|
|
\text{final state}
|
|
{{< /latex >}}
|
|
|
|
We'll write our Alloy code to match:
|
|
|
|
```Alloy
|
|
/* First if statement */
|
|
addBitfieldFlag[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldMiddle, Public] or
|
|
bitfieldEqual[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldMiddle]
|
|
|
|
/* ... something connecting bitfieldMiddle and bitfieldAfter ... */
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
From here, we can handle the second `if`/`else` chain in the same way we
|
|
did the first `if`-statement: by making all three outcomes of the chain be
|
|
possible, and creating an `or` of all of them.
|
|
|
|
```Alloy
|
|
/* First if statement */
|
|
addBitfieldFlag[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldMiddle, Public] or
|
|
bitfieldEqual[bitfieldBefore, bitfieldMiddle]
|
|
|
|
/* Second if statement */
|
|
addBitfieldFlag[bitfieldMiddle, bitfieldAfter, MethodOrField] or
|
|
addBitfieldFlagNeg[bitfieldMiddle, bitfieldAfter, Method] or
|
|
bitfieldEqual[bitfieldMiddle, bitfieldAfter]
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
So that helps model the relevant Dyno code. However, what we really want is
|
|
an Alloy predicate that classifies possible outcomes of the piece of code:
|
|
is a particular combination of flags possible or not? Here's the piece of
|
|
Alloy that does so:
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 113 132 >}}
|
|
|
|
The `FilterState` on the first line (and elsewhere, really), is new. I'm
|
|
trying to be explicit about the state in this particular computation. Its
|
|
definition is very simple: currently, the only state we care about is the
|
|
`Bitfield` corresponding to `curFilter` in the C++ code above.
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 12 14 >}}
|
|
|
|
There's not much more to the predicate. It says, in English, that a state
|
|
`filterState` is possible if, starting from an empty initial state
|
|
`initialState`, the model of our C++ code can end up with its particular
|
|
set of flags in the `curFilter` bitfield.
|
|
|
|
### Modeling Search State
|
|
|
|
Next, I needed to model the behavior the I described earlier: searching for
|
|
\\(A \\land \\lnot B\\), and taking the intersection of past searches
|
|
when running subsequent searches.
|
|
|
|
Dyno implemented this roughly as follows:
|
|
|
|
1. It kept a mapping of (searched scope → search bitfield). Initially, this
|
|
mapping was empty.
|
|
2. When a scope was searched for the first time, its `curFilter` / search
|
|
bitfield was stored into the mapping.
|
|
3. When a scope was searched after that, the previously-stored flags in the
|
|
mapping were excluded (that's the \\(A\\land\\lnot B\\) behavior), and
|
|
the bitfield in the mapping was updated to be the intersection of
|
|
`curFilter` and the stored flags.
|
|
|
|
We'll simplify the model by doing away with the mapping, and considering
|
|
only a single scope that is searched many times. We'll represent the stored
|
|
flags as a field `found`, which will be one of two things: either a
|
|
`Bitfield` representing the previously-stored search configuration, or a
|
|
`NotSet` sentinel value, representing a scope that hasn't been searched
|
|
yet. The Alloy code:
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 21 23 >}}
|
|
|
|
The `NotSet` sentinel value is defined in a very simple way:
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 17 17 >}}
|
|
|
|
Both of these signatures use a new keyword, `one`. This keyword means that
|
|
there's only a single instance of both `NotSet` and `SearchState` in our
|
|
model. This is in contrast to a signature like `Bitfield,` which allows
|
|
multiple bitfields to exist at the same time. I ended up with a pretty
|
|
simple predicate that implemented the "store if not set, intersect if set"
|
|
behavior in Alloy:
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 147 150 >}}
|
|
|
|
If you look closely, this predicate uses a feature of Alloy we haven't
|
|
really seen: its ability to reason about time by dipping into _temporal logic_.
|
|
Notice that the predicate is written not just in terms of `toSet`, but also
|
|
`toSet'`. The tick (which I personally read as "prime") indicates that what
|
|
we're talking about is not the _current_ value of `toSet`, but its value at
|
|
the _next moment in time_.
|
|
|
|
The first line of the predicate represents the second item from the list
|
|
above: if a scope hasn't been searched before (represented by the _present_
|
|
value of `toSet` being `NotSet`) the future value (represented by `toSet'`)
|
|
is just the current filter / bitfield. The second line handles the third item
|
|
from the list, updating a previously-set filter based on new flags. I defined
|
|
an additional predicate to help with this:
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 138 140 >}}
|
|
|
|
What this predicate says is that _at the next moment_, the value of `toSet`
|
|
will be equal to its present value intersected with `curFilter`. I also had
|
|
to specify that the future value of `toSet`, will still be a
|
|
`Bitfield` after the step, and would not revert to a `NotSet`.
|
|
|
|
With the `updateOrSet` predicate in hand, we can actually specify how our
|
|
model will evolve. To do so, we first need to specify the initial
|
|
conditions. In particular, our scope will start out not having been
|
|
searched; its flags will be `NotSet`.
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 138 140 >}}
|
|
|
|
Next, we must specify that our `SearchState` changes in a very particular
|
|
way: each step, the code invokes a search, and the state is modified to
|
|
record that the search occurred. Each search is described via `curFilter`
|
|
in a `filterState`. We want to ensure that `curFilter` is a reasonable
|
|
filter (that is, it's a combination of flags that can actually arise in the
|
|
C++ program). To ensure this, we can use the `possibleState` predicate from
|
|
earlier. From there, the `updateOrSet` predicate can be used to specify
|
|
that this step's `curFilter` is saved, either as-is (if no searches
|
|
occurred previously) or as an intersection (if this is not the first
|
|
search). The whole fact corresponding to this is below:
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 161 175 >}}
|
|
|
|
### Asking for Counterexamples
|
|
|
|
As we've already seen, Alloy works by finding examples: combinations of
|
|
various variables that match our requirements. It won't be sufficient to
|
|
ask Alloy for an example of our code doing what we expect: if the code
|
|
malfunctions nine times out of ten, Alloy will still find us the one case
|
|
in which it works. It won't tell us much.
|
|
|
|
Instead, we have to ask it to find a _counterexample_: a case which does
|
|
_not_ work. If Alloy succeeds in finding such an example, the code we're
|
|
modeling has a bug. Of course, to make all this work, you need to know what
|
|
to ask. There's no way to tell Alloy, "find me a bug" -- we need to be more
|
|
specific. I had to focus on bugs I was most worried about.
|
|
|
|
If the stored combination of flags (in `found`) evolves into a bad
|
|
configuration, things can go wrong in two ways. The first is that we will
|
|
somehow exclude symbols from the lookup that shouldn't have been excluded.
|
|
In other words, can past searches break future searches?
|
|
|
|
I came up with the following Alloy (counter)example to model this
|
|
situation. It's a little bit long; there are comments there to explain what
|
|
it does, and I'll go through below.
|
|
|
|
{{< codelines "Alloy" "dyno-alloy/DynoAlloy.als" 177 202 >}}
|
|
|
|
This example asks that at some point in time, things "go wrong". In
|
|
particular, will there by a symbol (`symbol`) that hasn't been found yet,
|
|
such that a search for a particular filter (`fs`) will break the system,
|
|
making a subsequent search `fsBroken` not find `symbol` even though it
|
|
should have?
|
|
|
|
The `possibleState`, `updateOrSet`, and `excludeBitfield`
|
|
lines encode the fact that a search occurred for `fs`. This must be a valid
|
|
search, and the search state must be modified appropriately. Furthermore,
|
|
at the time this search takes place, to make the \\(\\lnot B\\) portion of
|
|
the algorithm work, the bitfield `exclude1` will be set based on the
|
|
previous search state.
|
|
|
|
The next two lines, `possibleState` and `excludeBitfield`, set the stage for
|
|
the broken search: `fsBroken` is a another valid search, and at the time it
|
|
happens, the bitfield `exclude2` is set based on previous search state.
|
|
Since `fsBroken` occurs after `fs`, its "previous search state" is actually
|
|
the state _after_ `fs`, so we use `found'` instead of `found`.
|
|
|
|
Finally, the subsequent four lines of code describe the issue: the symbol
|
|
in question has not been found before `fs`, and nor will it be found by
|
|
`fs`. That means thus far, it hasn't been reported to the user.
|
|
Therefore, if the symbol matches `fsBroken`, it ought to be reported: we haven't
|
|
seen it yet, and here we're being asked for something matching the symbol's
|
|
description! However, as per the last line of code, searching for
|
|
`fsBroken` together with the appropriate set of exclude flags, we still
|
|
don't find `symbol`. That's a problem!
|
|
|
|
Unfortunately, Alloy finds a model that satisfies this constraint. There
|
|
are a lot of moving parts, so the output is a bit difficult to read. I did
|
|
my best to clean it up by turning off some arrows. Our system is spanning
|
|
multiple "moments" in time, so a single picture won't describe the bug
|
|
entirely. Here's the diagram Alloy outputs for the first state:
|
|
|
|
{{< figure src="bug.png" caption="Figure representing the initial state according to Alloy" class="fullwide" >}}
|
|
|
|
We can get a lot out of this figure. First, the symbol-to-be-lost is a
|
|
private method (it doesn't have the `PPublic` property, and it does have
|
|
the `PMethod` property). Also, Alloy immediately gives away what `fs` and
|
|
`fsBroken` will be: eventually, when the user searches for all
|
|
_non-methods_ (`negativeFlags: Method` are the giveaway there), their
|
|
subsequent search for _anything_ will fail to come up with our private
|
|
method, even though it should. To gather more details about this broken
|
|
case, we can look at the state that follows the initial one.
|
|
|
|
{{< figure src="bug_2.png" caption="Figure representing the second state according to Alloy" class="fullwide" >}}
|
|
|
|
The main difference is that `found` has changed from `NotSet` (because no
|
|
searches occurred) to `FilterState1`. This indicates that the first search
|
|
was for all `Public` symbols (which our method is not). There is only one
|
|
more state after this:
|
|
|
|
{{< figure src="bug_3.png" caption="Figure representing the final state according to Alloy" class="fullwide" >}}
|
|
|
|
In the above diagram, `found` has changed once again, this time to an empty
|
|
bitfield. This is a valid behavior for our system. Recall that `fs` was a
|
|
search for non-methods, and that the intersection of `NOT_METHOD` and `PUBLIC`
|
|
is empty. Thus, `found` will be set to the empty `bitfield`, which
|
|
(incorrectly) indicates that all symbols have been searched for! After
|
|
this, any search would fail: `fsBroken` doesn't have any flags set, and
|
|
still, nothing is reported.
|
|
|
|
Now, this doesn't definitively prove the compiler is broken: it's possible
|
|
that there isn't a situation in which three searches like this (`PUBLIC`,
|
|
then `NOT_METHOD`, then anything) will occur in practice. However, this
|
|
gave the "motif" for reproducing the bug. All I had to do was find a
|
|
real-life case that matched the counterexample.
|
|
|
|
It was a little easier to find a reproducer for a similar counterexample,
|
|
actually. By inspection, I noticed that the same bug would occur if the
|
|
second search was for `METHOD_OR_FIELD`, and not for `NOT_METHOD`. I was
|
|
able to come up with a (fairly convoluted) example of Chapel code that
|
|
triggered the issue. I include it here as a curiosity; there's no need to
|
|
understand how exactly it works.
|
|
|
|
```Chapel
|
|
module TopLevel {
|
|
module XContainerUser {
|
|
public use TopLevel.XContainer; // Will search for public, to no avail.
|
|
}
|
|
module XContainer {
|
|
private var x: int;
|
|
record R {} // R is in the same scope as x so it won't set public
|
|
module MethodHaver {
|
|
use TopLevel.XContainerUser;
|
|
use TopLevel.XContainer;
|
|
proc R.foo() {
|
|
var y = x;
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
}
|
|
```
|
|
|
|
Alas, the two-bitfield system is not just an approximation, it malfunctions
|
|
in practice. I submitted a PR to fix the issue.
|